5. C3, C4, Cam Plants

C3 Plants

In order for C3 plants to limit their lost of water on hot and dry days, they close their stomata.  Consequently, this begins the process of photorespiration where the Calvin cycle is slowed down as the concentration in the leaf air space decreases.  O2 and CO2 would begin to accumulate, and enables rubisco to add O2 in place of CO2 to RuBP.  Lastly, the produce would split while a two-carbon compound departs from the chloroplast, in order to release more CO2.   

C4 Plants

CO2 is added to PEP (3-carbon compound) with the help of the enzyme, PEP carboxylase, since it tends to have a high affinity for CO2.  In the mesophyll cells of the leaf a four-carbon compound is then formed and moved to the bundle-sheath cells of the leaf where it is tightly packed at the leaves' veins.  Like C3 plants, C4 plants also breaks down the compound to release CO2.  The Calvin cycle is then initiated as the CO2 concentration is high enough for rubisco to accept CO2.  

CAM Plants

Similar to C3 plants, CAM plants or Crassulacean Acid Metabolism, also close its stomata to save water.  it closes its stomata during the daytime and opens its stomata at nighttime, in order to save water and to take up CO2 and to use CO2 by putting it into several organic acids.  In the daytime, CO2 is released as compounds are being broken.  However, CAM plants differ from C4 plants; CAM plants' pathways do no structurally separate carbon fixation from the Calvin cycle.  In CAM plants, carbon fixation and the Calvin cycle are separated in time.    

References:http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/calvin.html
                     http://legacy.earlham.edu/~vandeel/notes.htm
                     Student Study Guide for Biology 6th Edition by Campbell and Reece

4. I learned About Macromolecules

After visiting http://biomodel.uah.es/en/model3/index.htm I have learned about macromolecules organized into five basic topics. 


1. Carbohydrates:
    As a part of carbohydrates there a few types of monosaccharides such as glucose and frutose.  Glucose(A) is a hexose and a aldohxose. The diagram shows a glucopyranose in a form of a pyranose.  Fructose(B) is also a hexose of the ketose type, this diagram shows a fructofuranose.  Disaccharides (C) can be represented by sucrose, that is combined by glucose and frutose, called a glycsidic bond. Polysaccharides (D)can be represented by cellulose, starch, amylose, amylopectin, and others of its type.  They are the biggest of the three, and they are all a part of carbohydrates.

2. Lipids
   Lipids can be described and demonstrated through fatty acids, triacylglcerols, phospholipids, steroids, and lipid bilayer. Fatty acids(F) may be saturated [single bonds between carbons] or unsaturated [double bonds with bending chains]. Triacylglcerols or triglycerides are formed when glycerin and three fatty acid molecules are linked.  Phospholipids  are also a linkage, this time it is glycerin with two fatty acids, one being a phosphate.  Steroids (E), such as cholerterol, are made of a hydrophobic and a hydrophylic parts that relates to its membrances.  Lastly, the structure of lipids are represented by lipid bilayers(G) in the diagram. 

3. Vitamins

   Vitamins can be represented but VitaminA/ Retinol [H, a terpene lipid] and Vitamin B2/ Riboflavin [I, one that shows double bonds].

4. Proteins
    Proteins are made up of several types and levels of structures.  The primary structure of a protein is made of amino acids and peptides.  The secondary structure is made of alpha helix(J), and beta strands.  The tertiary structure can be represented by a lysozyme, while the quaternary structure can be represented by hempglobin(K). 

5. Nucleic Acids:
   Nitrogenous bases, nucleosides, nucleotides, DNA, and RNA represents the structure of nucleic acids.  Nitrogenous bases in include adenine [L, made of purine] and are used to form nucleosides, while nucleosides make up nucleotides.  Nucleotides, when formed with other particles, make up RNA(M) and DNA(N).

photos were taken from http://biomodel.uah.es/en/model3/index.htm

3. Biochemistry Wordle

Biochemistry involves organic chemistry and different functional groups, such as the hydroxyl group, carbonyl group, carboxyl group, amino group, sulfhydrl group, and phosphate group, along with the properties of water (some include, being the universal solvent, having adhesion and cohesion) make up the basics.  The other words are used to describe and explain the properties and structures of the groups.  Those words include isomers, geometric isomers, macromolecules, carbohydrates, and nucleotides (make nucleic acids), in which all together makes up parts of biochemistry.